The prototype of Airbus Helicopters’ VSR700 unmanned aerial system has performed its first flight at a drone test centre near Aix-en-Provence in the south of France. The VSR700 performed several take-offs and landings on Friday 8th of November with the longest flight lasting around 10 minutes.
VSR700 prototype performs first flight
In accordance with the airworthiness authority that provided the flight clearance, the VSR700 was tethered with 30-metre/98-foot cables to fully secure the flight test zone. The subsequent phases of the flight test programme will now evolve towards free flight, and then progressively open the flight envelope.
«The VSR700 is a fully-fledged unmanned aerial system, capitalising on Airbus Helicopters’ extensive experience of advanced autopilot systems and engineering expertise to provide modern militaries with new capabilities», said Bruno Even, Airbus Helicopters CEO. «This first flight of the VSR700 prototype is a major milestone for the programme as we make progress on the operational demonstrator for the French Navy that will perform trials in 2021 in partnership with Naval Group».
The VSR700, derived from Hélicoptères Guimbal’s Cabri G2, is an unmanned aerial system in the 500-1000 kg/1,102-2,204 lbs. maximum take-off weight range. It offers the best balance of payload capability, endurance and operational cost. It is capable of carrying multiple full size naval sensors for extended periods and can operate in existing ships, alongside a helicopter, with a low logistical footprint.
The VSR700 prototype which has just performed its maiden flight is a step change from the optionally piloted demonstrator that first flew in 2017 and which was based on a modified Cabri G2 equipped for autonomous flight. Compared to the demonstrator, the VSR700 prototype has a specialized set of avionics and an advanced flight control system, a payload bay in place of the pilot station designed to manage mission equipment, as well as a sleeker, more aerodynamic shape to improve flight performance.
Airbus Helicopters has delivered the first NH90 Sea Lion naval multi-role helicopter to the Federal Office of Bundeswehr Equipment, Information Technology and In-Service Support (BAAINBw), with a further two to be delivered by the end of the year.
Airbus Helicopters delivers first NH90 Sea Lion to the German Armed Forces
In total, 18 Sea Lions have been ordered for the German Navy, with deliveries expected to be completed in 2022. The selection of the Sea Lion as the successor to the Sea King was made in March 2013 and the corresponding contract was signed in June 2015.
«I am proud of our teams who worked hard to meet the ambitious delivery schedule of our customer, whose continuous support has also been key in making it happen», said Wolfgang Schoder, CEO of Airbus Helicopters Deutschland. «During the summer, we successfully completed demonstration flights involving the German Navy and BAAINBw to verify the Sea Lion capabilities for search and rescue as well as special forces missions. I am confident that these helicopters will bring next-generation capabilities to the German Navy, and I’m committed to ensure the best level of support for the Sea Lion fleet».
When deployed, NH90 Sea Lions will take on a wide range of roles including Search And Rescue (SAR), maritime reconnaissance, special forces as well as personnel and material transportation missions. In addition to its land-based use, the Sea Lion will also operate on Type 702 (Berlin class) combat support ships.
Thanks to its multi-role capability and growth capability, the Sea Lion will not only replace the German Navy’s Sea King Mk41 fleet but significantly enhance its operational capabilities. The fly-by-wire flight controls of the NH90 Sea Lion reduce the crew’s workload thanks to its high precision and ease of use, which particularly come to the fore in over-water hovering, even in poor weather conditions.
The German Navy has also recently opted for the naval version of the NH90 to succeed its 22 Sea Lynx Mk 88A on-board helicopters that have been in service since 1981.
Five nations are already using the NH90 in its naval NATO Frigate Helicopter (NFH) version and have completed more than 50,000 flying hours in SAR, humanitarian and military missions, with the 90 helicopters that have been delivered so far. The 399 helicopters that make up the worldwide NH90 fleet have already completed over 230,000 flying hours. This first Sea Lion is also the 400th NH90 helicopter to be delivered.
Characteristics
Maximum Weight
11,000 kg/24,250 lbs.
Capacity
Crew (2 + 1 or 2 + 2) + up to 7/6 troops in Anti-Submarine Warfare/Anti-SUrface Warfare (ASW/ASuW), or up to 14 troops for transport in full crashworthy condition
Engine
2 RTM 322-01-9 or T700 T6E1 Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC). Maximum emergency power One Engine Inoperative (OEI) 30 sec: 2,172 kW/2,913 shp
Fast Cruise Speed
147 knots/169 mph/272 km/h
Maximum Range
450 NM/518 miles/834 km
Main Missions
Anti-Submarine & Anti-SUrface
Warfare*
Search And Rescue
Logistic & vertical replenishment
Casualty/medical evacuation
Special operations (including maritime counter-terrorism and anti-piracy)
Maritime surveillance/enforcement
* Capability of 2 torpedoes or 2 anti-ship missiles, or 1 of each
The French Defence Procurement Agency DGA has signed an order to purchase an additional H225M which will be operated by the French Air Force. The aircraft will be delivered in a configuration that allows it to be interoperable with the existing fleet of 10 H225Ms in the French Air Force and in particular it will be capable of inflight refuelling, an essential operational advantage that this helicopter offers.
French Air Force bolsters its fleet of H225Ms
The aircraft will be based in Cazaux and will be used for Special Forces and Search and Rescue missions.
«We are very proud that the French Air Force is renewing its trust in the reliable multirole H225M, having been the first to deploy the type in an operational theatre in 2006», said Alexandra Cros, Vice President and Head of Governmental Affairs France at Airbus Helicopters. «The H225M is a real military asset thanks to its versatility and its excellent range. Operational from ships and land with an all-weather capability and takeoff in less than five minutes, it’s always ready for assignment», she added.
The H225M, with more than 180 aircraft ordered, 97 helicopters delivered, and 110,000 flight hours accumulated to date, is a recognized combat-proven, versatile and reliable workhorse for military missions worldwide. The 11-tonne member of the Super Puma family is relied upon as a force multiplier by France, Brazil, Mexico, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Thailand. Indonesia has recently placed a follow-on order for an additional eight aircraft. Other recent customers for the H225M include Kuwait, Singapore, and Hungary who signed a contract for 16 H225Ms in December last year.
Characteristics
CAPACITY
Troop transport
2 pilots + 1 chief of stick + 28 seats
VIP transport
2 pilots + 8 to 12 passengers
Casualty evacuation
2 pilots + up to 11 stretchers + 4 seats
Sling load
4,750 kg/10,472 lbs.
EXTERNAL DIMENSIONS
Length
16.79 m/55.08 feet
Width
3.96 m/13 feet
Height
4.60 m/15.09 feet
WEIGHT
Maximum Take-Off Weight (MTOW)
11,000 kg/24,251 lbs.
MTOW in external load configuration
11,200 kg/24,690 lbs.
Empty weight
5,715 kg/12,600 lbs.
Useful load
5,285 kg/11,651 lbs.
Maximum cargo-sling load
4,750 kg/10,472 lbs.
Standard fuel capacity
2,247 kg/4,954 lbs.
ENGINES 2 TURBOMECA MAKILA 2A1
Take-off power per engine
1,567 kW/2,101 shp
PERFORMANCE AT MAXIMUM GROSS WEIGHT, ISA*, SL**
Maximum speed (Vne***)
324 km/h/175 knots
Fast cruise speed (at MCP****)
262 km/h/142 knots
Rate of climb
5.4 m/s/1,064 feet/min
Service ceiling (Vz = 0.508 m/s = 100 feet/min)
3,968 m/13,019 feet
Hover ceiling OGE***** at ISA*, MTOW, take-off power
792 m/2,600 feet
Maximum range without reserve at Economical Cruise Speed
The French Minister of the Armed Forces, Florence Parly, has announced that the launch of the Joint Light Helicopter (Hélicoptère Interarmées Léger; HIL) programme has been brought forward to 2021. The HIL programme, for which the Airbus Helicopters’ H160 was selected in 2017, was initially scheduled for launch in 2022 by the current military budget law. Launching the programme earlier will enable delivery of the first H160Ms to the French Armed Forces to be advanced to 2026.
French Ministry of the Armed Forces brings development of future Joint Light Helicopter forward (Airbus photo)
During a visit to the Airbus Helicopters headquarters, the Minister also revealed the full-scale mock-up of the H160M that will be presented on the Ministry of the Armed Forces stand at the next Paris Air Show. The helicopter was also given its official name and will be designated as «Guépard» («Cheetah») by the French Armed Forces.
The H160 was designed to be a modular helicopter, enabling its military version, with a single platform, to perform missions ranging from commando infiltration to air intercept, fire support, and anti-ship warfare in order to meet the needs of the army, the navy and the air force through the HIL programme.
A mock-up of the French H160M armed helicopter, now christened Guépard (Cheetah), was unveiled today by Airbus Helicopters. Its development launch has been brought forward to 2021, allowing production deliveries to follow in 2026 (Airbus photo)
«We are proud that the HIL is considered a strategic programme. I would like to thank the Ministry, the French Defence Procurement Agency DGA and the armed forces for their trust and for the close collaboration which helped create the conditions for the programme to be brought forward within the framework of the current military budget law. This will make it possible to speed up the replacement of the older generation of aircraft, while optimising the support and availability of the French State’s helicopter fleet», said Bruno Even, CEO of Airbus Helicopters. «Our teams are committed to delivering an aircraft in 2026 that meets the needs of the French armed forces in terms of availability, performance and capability, thus enabling it to rapidly become the new benchmark on the world’s medium-lift military helicopter market».
Built around a platform that will enter service next year, the HIL programme will benefit from many of the advantages inherent in the civil H160, particularly in terms of support, with simplified maintenance and lower operating costs than the previous generation of helicopters in this category.
Airbus Helicopters has successfully completed its certification programme of cold-weather testing of its latest H160 helicopter in northern Finland.
Airbus H160 helicopter happily handles Finland’s freezing winter
The company deployed the first serial aircraft to Rovaniemi in Lapland in February where the test team benefited from a period of exceptionally low temperatures down to -37°C (-35°F). The main objective of this second campaign was to confirm the excellent behaviour of the H160 in extremely cold conditions with its serial configuration as the first test campaign in Canada was performed with a prototype aircraft.
Operations took place from the base of Babcock Scandinavian AirAmbulance, which flies Airbus H145 helicopters for Emergency Medical Services (EMS) customers in the region, including Finland’s FinnHEMS and the Regional Government of Åland also in Finland. The campaign included over 20 hours of flight tests as well as a lengthy series of ground tests and a 13-hour ferry flight from Airbus Helicopters’ Marignane base to the test site.
Babcock is the global launch customer for the H160 and will be the first operator to receive the new model. Its new fleet of H160s is destined for EMS and other critical service missions starting in Europe and to be deployed progressively across Babcock’s bases worldwide.
The H160 is an ideal aircraft for EMS operations with its wide-opening sliding door, roll-on stretcher capability and 360-degree access to the patient. It features exceptionally low sound levels in the cabin as well as low vibration levels, providing a beneficial environment for high-intensity care of patients over long distances.
Airbus Helicopters Head of H160 Program, Bernard Fujarski said: «This was a highly productive test programme. The colder the temperatures in which we can successfully fly and operate, the colder the temperatures in which our customers can carry out their work. We have been very happy with the freezing conditions in Lapland and overall with the behaviour of H160».
Airbus has more than 330 highly skilled employees in Finland, primarily in research and development, engineering and project management and notably in mission-critical communications. Its commercial aircraft form the backbone of Finnair’s airliner fleet and its helicopters serve on EMS operations and with the Finnish Border Guard.
The attached photo shows the H160 flying near Rovaniemi.
Airbus Helicopters is unveiling a new version of its best-selling H145 light twin-engine helicopter at Heli-Expo 2019 in Atlanta. Visible on the Airbus booth at the show, this latest upgrade brings a new, innovative five-bladed rotor to the multi-mission H145, increasing the useful load of the helicopter by 150 kg/331 lbs. while delivering new levels of comfort, simplicity and connectivity.
Airbus Helicopters unveils new H145 at Heli-Expo 2019
«We’re extremely happy to be able to showcase the new H145 to our customers here in Atlanta as this upgrade owes a lot to the feedback, they have provided us over the years about the aircraft», said Bruno Even, Airbus Helicopters CEO. «Our teams have worked hard to quickly bring to the market a set of innovations that we believe will contribute to the success of our customers’ operations. It is their trust in the H145 and all its predecessor variants over the last decades that have made it the fantastic helicopter it has become today, and I want to thank them for their continuous support».
The H145’s new five-bladed rotor brings a significant increase in overall performance, with a maximum take-off weight raised to 3,800 kg/8,378 lbs. and a useful load now equivalent to the aircraft’s empty weight. The simplicity of the new bearingless main rotor design will also ease maintenance operations, further improving the benchmark serviceability and reliability of the H145, while improving ride comfort for both passengers and crew. The reduced rotor diameter will allow the H145 to operate in more confined areas.
The new H145 introduces new levels of on-board connectivity to customers and operators through the integration of the wireless Airborne Communication System (wACS), allowing seamless and secure transmission of data generated by the helicopter in real-time, including in-flight.
European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) certification of the new H145 is planned for early 2020, with first deliveries to follow later that year. This upgrade will also be offered to current H145 customers as a retrofit option in order to deliver the same improvements in terms of useful load, simplified maintenance and comfort to the existing version of the H145.
Powered by two Safran Arriel 2E engines, the H145 is equipped with Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC) and the Helionix digital avionics suite. It includes a high performance 4-axis autopilot, increasing safety and reducing pilot workload. Its particularly low acoustic footprint makes the H145 the quietest helicopter in its class.
The new version of the H145 flies in the Pyrénées region of France
Kick-starting the modernisation of Ukraine’s helicopter fleet, Airbus Helicopters has delivered the first two H225s, out of an order for 21 aircraft, to the Ukrainian Ministry of Interior. One aircraft is destined for search and rescue missions and the other one will be operated by the National Guard for law enforcement missions. The H225 helicopters were repurposed to suit these public service missions in just over three months. Another two H225s will join the fleet in the coming weeks.
Ukrainian Ministry of Interior takes delivery of its first H225s
«Further to the Intergovernmental Agreement signed between Ukraine and France earlier this year, we are pleased to be celebrating the first deliveries. This Agreement for 55 helicopters enables Ukraine to provide its population with a complete range of helicopter services from search and rescue, emergency medical services, firefighting to law enforcement missions», said Arsen Avakov, Minister of Internal Affairs of Ukraine. «Thanks to the excellent operational cooperation with Airbus, we will also set up a local training and maintenance centre in Ukraine to support our new modernized fleet of helicopters», he added.
«We are pleased that these two H225s have landed in Ukraine in a record amount of time. Now that the pilots have completed their H225 certification training in France, Ukraine can immediately take advantage of the excellent payload and range that the multi-purpose H225 offers along with the aircraft’s state-of-the-art autopilot that provides precision while reducing crew workload in the most demanding mission conditions», said Matthieu Louvot, Executive Vice President for Support and Services at Airbus Helicopters who attended the delivery ceremony in Kiev. «One of the next steps is to accompany the Ministry of Interior in setting-up a dedicated training and maintenance centre for the helicopters in Ukraine», he added.
The first deliveries have taken place in the frame of the Intergovernmental Agreement contract signed in July 2018 for 55 aircraft – 21 repurposed H225s, 10 brand new H145s, and 24 H125s, all aimed for Search And Rescue (SAR), EMS and other public service missions.
The 11-tonne-category twin-turbine H225 is recognised as a reference in SAR operations and is relied on by organisations worldwide including the Japan Coast Guard, the Spanish Coast Guard and the Argentine Coast Guard. Benefits for these demanding missions include a takeoff sequence of less than five minutes, its all-weather capability including in full icing conditions, its SAR modes and renowned autopilot precision.
The H225 offers outstanding endurance and fast cruise speed, and can be fitted with a wide range of mission equipment to suit any role. The H225 family has accumulated over 640,000 flight hours to date.
Characteristics
CAPACITY
Troop transport
2 pilots + 1 chief of stick + 28 seats
VIP transport
2 pilots + 8 to 12 passengers
Casualty evacuation
2 pilots + up to 11 stretchers + 4 seats
Sling load
4,750 kg/10,472 lbs.
EXTERNAL DIMENSIONS
Length
16.79 m/55.08 feet
Width
3.96 m/13 feet
Height
4.60 m/15.09 feet
WEIGHT
Maximum Take-Off Weight (MTOW)
11,000 kg/24,251 lbs.
MTOW in external load configuration
11,200 kg/24,690 lbs.
Empty weight
5,715 kg/12,600 lbs.
Useful load
5,285 kg/11,651 lbs.
Maximum cargo-sling load
4,750 kg/10,472 lbs.
Standard fuel capacity
2,247 kg/4,954 lbs.
ENGINES 2 TURBOMECA MAKILA 2A1
Take-off power per engine
1,567 kW/2,101 shp
PERFORMANCE AT MAXIMUM GROSS WEIGHT, ISA*, SL**
Maximum speed (Vne***)
324 km/h/175 knots
Fast cruise speed (at MCP****)
262 km/h/142 knots
Rate of climb
5.4 m/s/1,064 feet/min
Service ceiling (Vz = 0.508 m/s = 100 feet/min)
3,968 m/13,019 feet
Hover ceiling OGE***** at ISA*, MTOW, take-off power
792 m/2,600 feet
Maximum range without reserve at Economical Cruise Speed
The Serbian Minister of Defence Aleksandar Vulin visited the Airbus Helicopters Donauwörth site to accept the first H145M for the Serbian Air Force. In December, two H145Ms will be delivered to the Serbian Ministry of Interior. Altogether, Serbia will receive nine H145Ms, earmarked for the Air Force and for the Ministry of Interior. Four of the Air Force’s aircraft will be equipped with the HForce weapon management system.
Serbia receives first out of nine H145Ms
«We assess the implementation of the contract as an example of successful cooperation and positive business practice», said Aleksandar Vulin. «All the activities so far have been carried out within the agreed deadlines, and we expect the future activities to be implemented in the same manner. We are particularly pleased to point out that the activities of the industrial cooperation covered by the contract are taking place within the planned timelines».
«I would like to thank the Serbian government and personally Defence Minister Vulin for their trust in the latest member of our H145 family and for the smooth cooperation since the negotiations started in 2016», said Wolfgang Schoder, CEO of Airbus Helicopters Germany. «We see a lot more opportunities for the H145M in Europe and beyond».
The contract between Airbus Helicopters and Serbia foresees transfer of technology, spare parts, tools and documentation for the helicopters’ maintenance and repair. Airbus Helicopters will also certify Serbia’s Moma Stanojlovic aeronautical plant as a centre for the maintenance of Gazelle helicopters and will include it in its overhaul network. Airbus will also support Serbian manufacturing plants and research and development institutions to obtain relevant qualifications and certificates to become a supplier.
The H145M has several optional equipment packages that can be installed or removed depending on the assigned mission. With a Maximum Take-Off Weight (MTOW) of 8,157 lbs/3,700 kg, the H145M can be used for a wide range of tasks, including troop transport, utility, surveillance, air rescue, armed reconnaissance and medical evacuation.
The Serbian aircraft will be equipped with a fast roping system, high-performance camera, fire support equipment, ballistic protection as well as an electronic countermeasures system to support the most demanding operational requirements. The HForce system, developed by Airbus Helicopters, will allow Serbia to equip and operate their aircraft with a large set of ballistic or guided air-to-ground and air-to-air weapons.
The H145M is a tried-and-tested light twin-engine helicopter that was first delivered in 2015 to the German Armed Forces and has since been ordered by Hungary, Thailand and Luxemburg. The programme’s maturity allows Airbus Helicopters to execute orders on cost and on schedule. Mission readiness of the H145Ms already in service is above 95 percent.
Powered by two Safran Arriel 2E engines, the H145M is equipped with Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC) and the Helionix digital avionics suite. It includes a high-performance 4-axis autopilot, increasing safety and reducing pilot workload. Its particularly low acoustic footprint makes the H145M the quietest helicopter in its class.
Airbus Helicopters continues to progress with the development of its Racer (Rapid And Cost-Efficient Rotorcraft) technology demonstrator, funded by European Union’s H2020 framework through the Clean Sky 2 program, and aiming to provide the best trade-off between speed, cost-efficiency, sustainability and mission performance.
After the validation of the demonstrator’s aerodynamic configuration last year, key subsystems have now successfully passed their Preliminary Design Review (PDR) giving way to the launching of first components manufacture. Final assembly of the prototype is planned to start in Q4 2019.
«I want to thank all of our European partners for the excellence of their work and for their commitment in this fantastic project», said Tomasz Krysinski, Head of Research & Innovation at Airbus Helicopters. «The PDR marks a major achievement for the Racer program as it allows to freeze interfaces and 3D definitions of the main subsystems, prior to detailed design and manufacture of key components».
Long-lead items are the first ones to be manufactured. Airbus Helicopters teams already launched production of the lateral drive shaft, one of the Racer’s most innovative components. Among key subsystems, Italy’s Avio Aero, a GE Aviation Business, is launching procurement and manufacturing for the aircraft’s lateral gear boxes housing, while Hamble UK based GE Aviation Integrated Systems is taking care of the wing’s titanium cradle part. Romania’s INCAS/Romaero has already started manufacturing the Racer’s composite side panel and Spain’s Aernnova the tail parts primary structure.
Together with its partners, Airbus Helicopters is currently refining the content of the future Racer flight demonstration in Clean Sky 2 which will begin in 2020 and include about 200 flight hours. The first part will focus on the progressive opening of the flight envelope and on assessing key performance objectives as well as speed, handling qualities, stability and aerodynamics. The second phase will aim at demonstrating the aircraft’s suitability to carry out potential missions where increased speed and efficiency would bring significant added value, such as Emergency Medical Services (EMS), Search & Rescue (SAR) and private transport. This second flight testing phase will also allow to mature low-noise flight procedures, unique to the Racer demonstrator formula.
Airbus Helicopters has secured an additional order of four H225M (previously known as EC725) multirole utility helicopters from the Royal Thai Air Force (RTAF), as part of the fleet strengthening programme. This follow-on order will bring the RTAF’s H225M fleet to 12 units by 2021.
Royal Thai Air Force places order for two additional EC725s
Specially equipped with emergency flotation gear, fast roping, cargo sling, search light and electro-optical systems, these four new multirole H225M helicopters will join RTAF’s existing fleet of six H225Ms for combat search and rescue missions, search and rescue flights and troop transport operations. The air force will also be receiving two H225Ms from its earlier order, by end of this year.
This latest contract will also cover on-site technical support and continuing airworthiness management organisation services, fully supported by Airbus’ Thailand team.
«The H225Ms have served the Royal Thai Air Force well since the delivery of its first batch in 2015, and we are truly honoured by this renewed order, underscoring their continued trust and confidence in our helicopters and the committed support to their fleet. With its proven versatility, reliability and endurance, we know that the H225 will continue to capably fulfil the most challenging missions. RTAF can count on our Thailand-based customer centre for continued availability of the fleet», said Philippe Monteux, Head of Southeast Asia and Pacific region.
Featuring state-of-the-art electronic instruments and the renowned 4-axis autopilot system, the 11-ton-catergory twin-turbine H225M offers outstanding endurance and fast cruise speed, and may be fitted with various equipment to suit any role. Close to 90 units are in service, achieving 100,700 flight hours to-date.
Characteristics
CAPACITY
Troop transport
2 pilots + 1 chief of stick + 28 seats
VIP transport
2 pilots + 8 to 12 passengers
Casualty evacuation
2 pilots + up to 11 stretchers + 4 seats
Sling load
4,750 kg/10,472 lbs
EXTERNAL DIMENSIONS
Length
16.79 m/55.08 feet
Width
3.96 m/13 feet
Height
4.60 m/15.09 feet
WEIGHT
Maximum Take-Off Weight (MTOW)
11,000 kg/24,251 lbs
MTOW in external load configuration
11,200 kg/24,690 lbs
Empty weight
5,715 kg/12,600 lbs
Useful load
5,285 kg/11,651 lbs
Maximum cargo-sling load
4,750 kg/10,472 lbs
Standard fuel capacity
2,247 kg/4,954 lbs
ENGINES 2 TURBOMECA MAKILA 2A1
Take-off power per engine
1,567 kW/2,101 shp
PERFORMANCE AT MAXIMUM GROSS WEIGHT, ISA*, SL**
Maximum speed (Vne***)
324 km/h/175 knots
Fast cruise speed (at MCP****)
262 km/h/142 knots
Rate of climb
5.4 m/s/1,064 feet/min
Service ceiling (Vz = 0.508 m/s = 100 feet/min)
3,968 m/13,019 feet
Hover ceiling OGE***** at ISA*, MTOW, take-off power
792 m/2,600 feet
Maximum range without reserve at Economical Cruise Speed
